The Politics of Literacy

The 19th century was the beginning of the “common school.” During the mid- and late 19th century, education began to become available to all children. Reformers, Horace Mann and Henry Barnard worked to create school systems for their states and work for a common curriculum for schools. Readers were published which had “great influence” on those students and contained works which were considered substantial pieces of literature. Many of the readers consisted heavy moralistic undertones and pushed that white, protestant people were the model Americans. Some might argue that these schools were used to “Americanize immigrant who had arrived and made a home in America.
Because of the push for everyone to be educated, one room schoolhouses became the norm. Laws began to be passed assisting in the acquiring of land for schools and state colleges. The Northwest Ordinance is a prime example of a state encouraging the funding of schools. High Schools were established in the early 1800’s. These schools offered different tracks for students whether agricultural or educational (leading to university).
Later, during this time period Jim Crow laws came into effect making schools segregated. Plessy v. Ferguson also decided that schools should be separate but equal. Even with the establishment of these laws, all children were to be educated. These laws were not enforced in most cases and we all know that schools were separate but certainly not equal.
As I looked through the pictures found on the site, I was drawn to the picture of the Sheldon Institute in Alaska. On a mission trip to Bethel, Alaska, I was able to visit a school much like the one in the picture. I learned that these schools were much like boarding schools where children were left while parents hunted game before the cold winters set in. These schools were usually run by Christian missionaries who taught the Bible and English as well as other subjects. These schools although well-meant, tended to be viewed as places that took away an Innuit’s heritage.

As I read through the section on 20th Century Education and looked at the links which were imbedded in the section, I was struck by the many, many changes which have occurred in education during the 20th century. I had not realized that kindergartens had been in most public schools since 1910! The first sentence states that “...the 20th century was inclusivism and the idea of education for all.” I think that statement is somewhat debatable – clearly, although there were schools available for all people, those schools were certainly not equal in the quality of education and the opportunities each offered. Many inequalities have been addressed within the 20th century, however. The laws regarding segregation in schools addressed some of the problems, as did the formation of the “Integrity Task Force,” created to address the issue of the drop-out rate for Native Americans, and various rulings regarding Hispanic education, Asian-American education, and special education programs. Reading through the “Milestones in American public education” link made it clear that the social and economic events of the century also had a profound impact on the changing face of our education system.

I was particularly interested to read the comments of Eleanor Roosevelt about public education, originally published in Pictorial Review, April 1930: 4, 94, 97. She began by asking the purpose of education, noting that “Perhaps because there are so many books and the branches of knowledge in which we can learn facts are so multitudinous today, we begin to hear more frequently that the function of education is to give children a desire to learn and to teach them how to use their minds and where to go to acquire facts when their curiosity is aroused.” If she thought that in 1930, imagine how “bamboozled” she would be by the resources available to people today! I liked her comment about one of her teachers in that same article. She said “If ever in small ways I may do any good work in the world the credit will not be mine, but in part at least it will belong to the most inspiring teacher I ever knew.” She went on to say that “While we have put much money in buildings and laboratories and gymnasiums, we have forgotten that they are but the shell, and will never live and create a vital spark in the minds and hearts of our youth unless some teacher furnishes the inspiration.” What an insightful comment from a woman in 1930! I believe that, regardless of the facilities, the laws, or the rulings, the very heart of an education springs from the special relationship between a teacher and the students.

The children of the colonial times were only taught included reading, writing, simple math, poems, and prayers and this really only included children from the upper-class. Children from the poorer community did not receive any kind of literacy or religious education. Instead they learned through apprenticeships that lasted anywhere between 3-10 years. Boys and girls also had a different education. Boys were taught by a male tutor in higher math, Greek, Latin, science, celestial navigation (navigating ships by the stars), geography, history, fencing, social etiquette, and plantation management. While the girls learned enough reading, writing, and arithmetic to read their Bibles and be able to record household expenses. They were taught through three main books: the bible, a primer, and a hornbook. Most of there lessons they had to memorized because of the lack of paper and textbook. I was saddened while reading this. I knew this was how children were educated in the 17th century, but it still makes me sad. The MASSACHUSETTS EDUCATION LAWS OF 1642 AND 1647 and Old Deluder Satan Law helped advance education by requiring towns with fifty or more families to hire a man to teach reading. And a town of a hundred families must have a grammar schoolmaster who could prepare children to attend Harvard College.

The 20th Century was the idea of education for all people. Kindergarten came about and was in almost all public schools by 1910. The state controlled free public education. Students had to come to school, it was mandatory. All people; race, gender, background, had the right to have the same opportunity and education in schools. Early childhood education programs were more popular and students began to look at college as something that they can do, attainable.

Between 1900-1996 the percentage of teenager’s graduation from high school increased 6%. In 1940, we have over 117,000 school districts. But by 1900 the number had dropped to 15,000. The invention of automobiles in 1920, made it possible for larger districts. School buses made it possible for children living in rural areas to come to school.

Private schools were made available in 1925 when the Supreme Court ruled that children didn’t have to go to public school. They could go to private school if they wanted. The private schools were religious based schools.

Following the WWII the need for larger schools became huge. Immigrants and large birth era was two of many reasons. Programs such as Title 1, Head Start, and Job Corps came through President Kennedy and Johnson, trying to decrease the poverty rate.

Colonial Education
In the colonial days in America both boys and girls of upper class families received education, yet children from poorer families did not. They took on apprecticeships to learn specific skills that would help them in a certain job in colonial life.
Boys and girls from wealthy white families learned reading, writing, arithmetic, poems and prayers. The Bible, a primer, and a hornbook were the three most commonly used books. A hornbook is a wooden board with a handle that had a lesson sheet attached with the ABCs in small and capital letters, some syllables and often a prayer. This was used because paper was scarce and costly. Thus, children also relied heavily on memorization. Boys were trained in more advanced academic subjects and would continue their education at boarding schools in England with the intention of becoming a lawyer, doctor, or plantation owner. The education of girls was taught with the expectation that they would be the mistress of a plantation so they were taught how to record household expenses, cooking, weaving, and other household duties.

The Massachussetts Laws of 1642 and 1647 (The Old Deluder Satan Act) were passed during colonial times to ensure that education was compulsory. It really didn’t have to do with “school” but they wanted to make sure their children knew the principles of religion and the capital laws of the commonwealth. In this respect, religious concerns laid the groundwork for compulsory education. The Old Deluder Satan Act was passed to make sure that every town of 50 families had to hire a teacher, and every town of 100 families had to hire a grammar teacher, to ensure that the students were prepared for college.

Personally speaking, I see some similarities today...having taught inner city for the last 9 years. One of the reasons that I love the population that I work with, is that they have the same desire to learn that wealthier kids do. Kids are kids. BUT...they don't have the same resources...and the best teachers go to the schools that they know they are going to have those resources. Thus, our "poor" kids are still getting less of an education. They deserve just as much as anyone...especially if we want the cycle to break. If teachers don't take an active interest in them, then they themselves lose interest in learning and drop out. When they have their own kids, then they are not going to have an active interest in education and they demonstrate that to their kids and the cycle repeats again.

The earliest form of what we know as the state public school system began in the 1840s. Frequently called "The Common School Period,” this time in America’s history was pivotal, education became available to the general public not just those who could afford private schooling. Thanks to forward thinkers such as Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, education was being recognized for its positive effects on the well being of society as a whole. Elementary education was being offered to all and funded publically. In addition, local/state accountability and attendance policies were put into place.

Those who were in favor of making schools public believed education could create an improved, like-minded society. The McGuffey Reader, written by Rev. William Holmes McGuffey, was used as the primary text. The characters in his books were written to represent idealistic personality traits. These readers were held in such high regard at the time, it was mentioned to only be toped by the Bible.

There is additional information I could also report on, but I think that is more than enough to get the point across. My first reaction is…oh my, have we come a long way or what? I guess it had to start somewhere by someone and we can all be thankful that it did in fact get started. Education is my passion and livelihood, however as I think about walking into my classroom tomorrow, it could not be further from the images of the, “one-room schoolhouse” days I just read about. SmartBoards, boys AND girls, of ALL races AND cultures- I love my melting pot! Not to mention running water, a bathroom in my kindergarten room, and electricity. I’m pretty sure there are numerous and varied “discourses” represented in my classroom and yours too. I also think its fairly safe to say that in the “one-room schoolhouses” of the 19th century, that was not the case!

This was the time of common-school systems. It was labeled as the Common School Movement. Educational reformer Mann and Barnard worked to provide opportunities for the increasingly diverse population. Prior to the 1840 organized school was not a part of life. Mann and Barnard felt that by creating a common-school system that education could control poverty and reduce crime. If children were educated than the social stability would be preserved. Public school were established for everyone and funded by public money. The schools were held accountable by local school boards and state governments.
Advocates for common-school systems felt that if people were educated that they would be more productive. The advocates also used common-school systems as a way to Americanize foreigners so that they could blend into American culture. In 1841 McGuffey wrote the first reader to introduce children to ethical code of prompt, good, kind, honest and truthful. The book showed that white, Protestants were the model Americans and had a very moral tone. The McGuffey Readers were considered to be great literary works and had a great influence on literacy in the United States. The reader was only below the bible.
Public High School and Comprehensive High Schools were also created to educate the older students. Public High School curriculum focused on practical curriculum and college prep classes. The Comprehensive High Schools provide upper middle class with vocational and academic curriculum for a more diverse education.
After the Civil War public education continued to form and change. Voting and education was promoted as well as women teachers but the salary was kept low. The Jim Crow Law segregated school which promoted the development of the Tuskegee Normal School created by a former slave Lewis Adams, which later became the Tuskegee Institute.
The early school houses were one room with one teacher responsible for grades one through eight with 20 to 40 students.

The Nineteenth Century is the century when education went from being private, to open to all. I find this statement very telling. My first question was I really wanted to know who they considered "all"? The 19th Century is where we see the appearance of education reformers Horace Mann and Henry Barnard who fought for all American children to have the opportunity at an education. Reformers like Mann and Barnard were motivated by their belief that educating all would create a common bond among various populations, preserve social stability, and stifle crime and poverty. These reasons all seem very admirable to me, but in a society that thrives on separation of the classes I am not sure of how realistic their vision was.
Advocates for Common schools were instrumental in the establishing of the accountability of schools to local school boards and state governments. These advocates established what they called compulsory attendance laws in elementary schools. A fact that I found very interesting because I have often wondered how the calendar that we have got its start. The nineteenth century is also when we see the birth of the basal reader! Rev. William Holmes McGuffey published the first reader in 1841. The intention of his reader was to set the white, protestant as the moralistic and ethical model of an American. What I found astounding was that these readers were considered "remarkably literate" and were only exceeded by the Bible in their exertion of influence on literary taste.
I found some of the arguments for common schools very compelling. One argument in support of common schools was that they "Americanized" all foreigners. To me this completely goes against the "Melting Pot" theory America seemed to be embracing at this time. Another argument was that the more educated the population, the more productive they could be. I found this a bit confusing initially, but I guess it makes sense because the more workers know, the more work they are able to do. Another compelling argument for common schools, that I feel could actually be perceived as pretty prejudicial, is that common schools diluted the culture and religion of what I can only presume is new immigrants to this culture. My question here is why would you want to "dilute" someones culture or religion?
This article also mentioned in briefly that American high schools were established as alternatives to private academies, and the First and Second Morrill Acts which established the donation of lands and endowments in the construction of colleges. This article also mentions
the education of African-Americans after the Civil War through the Freedman's Bureau and the segregation laws that followed African-Americans into the 1950's.

Early Years: I found it amusing that social etiquette was actually a subject that the students would engage in.....it seems like we as teachers are still having to teach "social etiquette" - "manners" today. It really says something about the era, seeing that, the girls would only taught enough to read their Bibles and keep records. I found it amusing that the girls governess only needed to be "somewhat" educated. Ha! Do you suppose we (woman) were seen as the lesser gender????? It seems that even today, their are some left over attitudes that the poor, are not in need of an education, but rather just a trade school to acquire a skill to survive. I know I have come across or heard whispers of this. Wow.....Some of their educational Laws - a town of 50 or more people had to hire a man to teach reading, and reading scripture can save the soul. We can barely mention the word God in school now, without feeling like we are offending someone! (Sad). Most commonly used book for study were: The Bible, a primer, and a hornbook. - I was not sure what a hornbook was. So I clicked on the link, basically it consisted of a wooden paddle with lessons tacked on and covered by a piece of transparent horn. The primer was used for both public, and Sunday religious schools. They did have a type of "daycare" called the "Dame School" - where a women would teach young children their abc's while she did her household tasks. While there may be a lot of good daycares today...Some daycares today are probably not much better then this than the "Dame School"!
Later Years: School districts were forms in order to expand education to more people. However, there was still little female participation, no minority participation, rigid discipline, and the primer and hornbook were still used. The schools were usually one room, poor kept buildings. The children would supply the wood for the fire to keep the room warm. There were typically 20-30 students ranging in a variety of age groups. Some important names behind colonial education: Cotton Mather, Antony Benezet, and Benjamin Franklin

Colonial Education – Holly Tilley

During this education time period the primary education only consisted of reading, writing, simple math, poems, and prayers. Boys and girls had to memorize their lessons due to the lack of resources in textbooks and paper. Mainly the children used the Bible, a primer, and a hornbook during their school day. Education was only taught to the whites and helped prepare them for their roles in plantation life.

Boys and girls of planters experienced education in different ways. School days were very different from each other. The boys were taught by a male tutor and were usually taught the basics at home. If there was a young boy in a wealthy family then that family could send their boy to a boarding school in England for higher education. Girls basically learned enough reading, writing, and arithmetic to be able to read their Bibles and keep up the household. Girls were not allowed to go to boarding schools in England because education was not considered important to them. Children from poor families took on apprenticeships which lasted 3-10 years instead of being educated in literacy and religion. Schooling was mainly for upper class.

There were a few laws that were passed during the colonial education period. One in particular was The Law of 1647, “Old Deluder Satan Act”. This was one of Americans first education acts. This also led to formal schooling becoming more desirable. The act required that all towns of 50 or more families to provide an elementary school (hire a schoolmaster). Towns of 100 families must have a grammar schoolmaster to prepare their kids for Harvard College.

There were different types of schools during this time period. There was a Dame school which is like a daycare, where parents could drop their kids off while they completed daily task. The dame would teach the kids their abc’s, numbers, etc. You also had district schools during this period. New England Colonies established school districts to reach out and educate more people and they taught reading, writing, and arithmetic.